Evaluating A Health Care System And Its Effects On A...

WHO Framework There are four key characteristics to consider when evaluating a health care system and its effects on a population; these characteristics include access, coverage, quality, and safety (WHO, 2015). Since the ACA is in full swing, these four characteristics can be assessed and evaluated to help measure the success of the new health care system. Access is who gets into the system and who doesn’t and how (Boex, 2015). Many will argue that the ACA failed to provide greater access for the American people. The ACA did significantly reduce financial barriers to care, which helped increased access to care; but failed to provide the additional resources (primary care providers, transportation, flexible clinic hours, etc.) needed to gain access to care. Therefore, access has not been well addressed and continues to be an area for improvement for the American health care system. Coverage is what they find when they get there, what is included and excluded and why (Boex, 2015). The ACA succeeded in increasing coverage for the American people. It is estimated that over 32 million Americans will gain coverage through the ACA (Petterson, Liaw, Phillips, Rabin, Meyers, Bazemore, 2012). The coverage aspect was well addressed in the ACA and helps to provide health care coverage for millions of Americans from various economical statuses. Quality is the efficiency and effectiveness of what happens, do they monitor and what are their standards (Boex, 2015). The health careShow MoreRelatedManaging Director At Johnson Healthcare Management Consulting Firm1611 Words   |  7 PagesConsulting Firm, the premier provider for innovative solutions to performance enhancement and clinical transformation. This firm specializes in strategies for improving the health and well-being of mentally ill adults and children—with a primary focus on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 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Police Thesis Free Essays

CHAPTER 1 Introduction A. Background of the Study In the early years man had a difficult to accomplish their task in short period of time. Their works was never accurate and efficient since people had to do their jobs or responsibilities, manually. We will write a custom essay sample on Police Thesis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Hence, man has continuously looked for a better ways of doing things, for each invention and new development man had to extend their capabilities for making jobs easier and faster so as save time and effort. Man’s curiosity brought for the way of automation. Automation can be defined as a technology concerned with performing a process by means of programmed commands combined with automatic feedback control to ensure proper execution of the instructions. The development of this technology has become an increasingly dependent on the use of computers and computer related technologies. Advanced systems represent a level of capability and performance that surpass in many ways the abilities of human to accomplish the same activities. Manual procedures in performing transactions create problems which results to delay in the generation of reports, consume a lot of time in recording information and retrieving of files. One organization which uses manual record system and encountered those problems is the office of Philippine National Police (PNP) Roxas Zamboanga del Norte. The PNP Roxas, Zamboanga del Norte composing different registered of crime and incident from the different barangay of Roxas Zamboanga del Norte. PNP in cooperation of Local Government Unit (LGU) shall developed and implement programs on preventing crime and incident. The Local Government Unit (LGU) should provide the needs of the PNP Roxas Zamboanga del Norte. According to the PNP staff, recording and retrieving information of the incident and crimes happened and generating of report consume a lot of time since those transactions are done manually. This is the main reason why the researcher wants to conduct a study in the said office. The researcher wants to help their office by developing system software, making their transactions faster and easier to handle. B. Theoretical Framework. This study is anchored on Roger Clarke’s (1999) Diffusion of Innovation Theory. His theory describes the pattern of adoption, explains the mechanisms by which they occur, and assists in predicting whether a new invention will be successful. In its early stages, DOI theory was limited to expert in one specific field, examining and evaluating the diffusion of a process which relevant to their specialization. For example, medical sociologist would look a new technology occurring in health care and record the general rates of adoption, at the same time education researcher would study the spread of new teaching methodologist and its inevitable diffusion throughout the school system. Other theory is Everett Roger’s (1995) Diffusion of Innovation Theory. She defines innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. In matters little, so far as human behavior is concerned, whether or not an idea is â€Å"objectively† new as measured by the lapse of time since its first use or discovery. The perceived newness of the idea seems new to the individual, it is innovation. This definition broadly takes on innovation to include not only products such as technological innovation but also ideas and processes that stimulate the development of human potential and organizational processes. Aside from that, Roger also stated in the year 2003 that Diffusion of Innovation theory is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social System. † In other words, the study of the diffusion of innovation is the study of how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. The Office of PNP, Roxas, Zamboanga del Norte one of the offices that use a manual system in making Spot Report. Their Spot Report procedures are done through the recording the information into the log book. By adopting the theory the researchers had enhanced the Spot Report of the said office and made known as Automated Crime and Incidents Record Keeping System. C. Conceptual Framework This figure below is the conceptual framework of the study which is represented by these three frames. The first frame refers to the system currently used by the office of the PNP Roxas Station which is Manual Record System. Through the used by the Manual Record System problems occur such as time consuming and delay in the recording and retrieving of information and generation of reports which can be seen in the second frame. Frame two (2) is the reason why the Automated Record System, Frame three (3) will be the focus of the researcher’s study in order to help the PNP in the processing of their transactions easier and faster. ManualRecordSystem| | Time consuming and delayed in the recording and retrieving of information and generation of reports| | Automated Crime and Incidents Record KeepingSystem| Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the study This figure shows the conceptual framework of the study indicating the present system used at the PNP in processing their transactions. The problems they have encountered and the proposed system that that will help the PNP solve the problems they have encountered. D. Statement of the problem This study aims to design an Automated Record System at the Office of PNP Roxas Zamboanga del Norte. This study will seek to answer the following 1. What are the problems encountered in the Manual Record System at the Office of the PNP Roxas? 2. What system can be made to eliminate those problems? E. Objectives of the Study This study will be conducted in order to: 1. Identify the problems encountered in the PNP Roxas. 2. Develop a system that could eliminate those problems. F. Scope and Limitation This study was conducted at the Office of the PNP, Roxas Zamboanga del Norte. The study was focused on the spot report, encoding incidences, crimes and generating reports. This study was conducted during the second semester of the SY 2011-2012. G. Significance of the Study The researcher conducted a study on Automated Record System at the Office of the PNP, Roxas Zamboanga del Norte. This study will aim to help the personnel responsible in the crimes and incident records and in the generation of reports to reduce time am effort in recording and retrieving of files. Through this Automated Record System, time consumed in recording information of the crimes, incidence and delays in the generation of reports encountered by the personnel will be reduced if not totally eliminated. For the researcher, this study will enhance their knowledge regarding system development For the future researchers, this study will serve as their reference in conducting system study. H. Operational Definition of Terms Activities or Programs. This refers to the different activities of the PNP like monthly assembly, police drill, etc. Admin. The one who is in charge and provides the recruitment information. Alert Team. The One who is responsible on responding incidents. Finance. The one that responsible on financing matters. Intelligence Division. The one who is responsible on secret record movement and illegal activities of the community. Investigator. The one who is responsible on investigative matters. Operation. The one who is responsible on operational function PCR. â€Å"Police Community Relation† the one who is responsible of the relationship of the community and police. Radio Operator. The one who is responsible in transmitting and receiving information. Spot Report. A report regarding to a happened incidents or crimes. Warrant amp; Subpoena Server. Te one who is responsible on issuing warrant and subpoena. Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature As we continue to barrel through the information age, it is hard to imagine conducting business without computers. Each day, millions of people working in offices and homes around the world depend on computer technology to do their jobs efficiently and economically. To truly understand the computer’s history involves a daunting journey through mathematics, physics, and electrical engineering; through binary code, Boolean logic, real time, magnetic core memories, floating-point numeral notation, transistors, semiconductors, integrated circuits, and much, mush more. Luckily, most office workers do not need to understand this complex history to use computers and the dizzying array of software programs they execute. When computers were first developed nearly fifty years ago, the people who programmed them considered the task quite maddening. Fortunately, learning to use a personal computer today is often as simple as spending a few hours reading an instruction manual or following a hands-on tutorial. In recent years, computer technology has been incorporated into a wide range of costumers and industrial product. Computers are routinely used into word processing, email, video games, and other application that require repetitive tasks that can be automated. The offices and government institutions mentioned below are among the thousand of offices where application for membership are automated. One example is the Department of Social Welfare and Development. They are currently using the e-Donation Management System through a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with Globe X-Change Inc. (GXI) and Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the National Computer Center (NCC). The DSWD e-Donation Management System aims to provide the donor community a more convenient and cost-effective option of giving cash donation through the use of technology, such as short messaging services [SMS] or text message, as well as via online or internet. Likewise, it is a costume-designed turnkey solution that delivers, managers, and reconciles contribution and donations via text online transactions, working on a banking industry-standard ICT security environment, and a stable and scalable database system. This system takes the nature of an electronic payment system which is efficient and transparent, as well as fully received trough donation. Another is Tricare records-processing system. The TED system helps civilian providers get paid promptly for the services they provide to Tricare beneficiaries outside of military treatment facilities. Records are processed for provider payments in less than 24 hours in most cases. The ease and speed of the TED system gives providers an incentive to participate in Tricare. Increased participation in Tricare networks provides beneficiaries better access to health care. By verifying and analyzing the information in each records, the TED system allows providers payments to occur promptly and helps prevent payment of duplicate, fraudulent or erroneous claims. The information in the TED system provides data for developing health care treads and budgets projection. TED system staff members have processed more than $140 billion of purchased services for Tricare beneficiaries worldwide since 2004. The Government Services Insurance System also uses the ECard System in which using your eCard plus, you can check your GSIS records, renew your active status (for Pensioners), and even apply for GSIS loans, when you go to any G-W@PS kiosk installed in all GSIS offices and other major government offices all over the country and manage your eCard Plus ATM account or pay bill online. Also the electronic medical record (EMR) is a computerized medical record created in an organization that delivers care, such as a hospital and doctor’s surgery. Electronic medical records tend to be part of a local stand-alone health information system that allows storage, retrieval and modification of records. Aside from that the Records management, or RM, is the practice of maintaining the records of an organization from the time they are created up to their eventual disposal. This may include classifying, storing, securing, and destruction (or in some cases, archival preservation) of records. A record can be either a tangible object or digital information: for example, birth certificate, medical x-rays, office documents, databases, application data, and e-mail. Records management is primarily concerned with the evidence of an organization’s activities, and is usually applied according to the value of the records rather than their physical formal. Haryana Government is also using a system known as Haryana Land Record Information System. This system is a based software system used by the Haryana government for the computerization of land records in its tehsils. It was developed by NIC Haryana state Unit. Chapter 3 Methodology A. Settings of Study One of the first section citizens read in the local newspaper is the police spot report which contains information on crimes and incident that could affect them directly. The kind of information provided, however, largely depends on the publication. Local newspapers typically review these records, called spot and reports and print the crimes and incidents happen. Many police departments maintained a handwritten daily spot report. A police report is a record of crimes and incident and committed in a certain area during a certain period of time. Police agencies are required to keep a record of daily activities that can be inspected by the public. So as a police investigator, a factual, precise, accurate information must be posted in the police spot record and its depends upon the agency what type of information they want publish. Police spot report in certain cases, note a suspect’s name, age and address. A name of the victim or complaining party might also be included, but police might avoid providing additional of information if discretion is warranted. Where the crime occurred(at a residence, a business or elsewhere) should be noted as well. Likewise, if a vehicle was damaged or an item was stolen, those things might also be noted. This are the information to be stored in the system to make it easy to find the crimes in the previous recorded incidents. The purpose of a police spot report is to provide an accurate written account of a police officer’s observations during the investigation of a criminal incident. A police spot report can only be written by the officer(s) involved in the investigation of an incident. Each officer who makes a report must swear to its accuracy by signing it. The purpose of making a police spot report into database is to make the investigator easy to find or locate the file that being input in the previous record. PNP Head The figure below shows the organizational structure of the Office of the PNP. ADMIN Operation Radio Operator Intelligence Division Warrant/Subpoena Server PCR SALAAM Alert Team Investigator Finance Figure 2 Organizational Chart The organizational chart of the Office of the Philippine National police Roxas Zamboanga del Norte. This figure shows the hierarchy supervision at the Office of the Philippine National Police (PNP). B. Research Design and Procedure of the Study Request letter was sent to the Office of the Philippine National Police (PNP) asking permission to conduct a study in their office. It was followed with the distribution of questionnaire and the conduct of an interview. The researchers in return were provided useful tools such as the organizational structure and different forms like Spot Report form and the master list of the Crimes and Incidents. The researcher have also browsed the internet to gather some related literatures as their basis for the study. The preparation of the manuscript for the system proposal followed. Upon approval, the researcher started to design an Automated Crimes and Incident Record System. Figure 3 on the next page shows the Gantt chart that reflects he work plan in developing a system. Cost and benefits analysis was made to determine the affordability and worthiness of the system. Gantt chart (Work Plan Schedule) Planned starting date – September 2011 |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | Number of Months|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | Activities|   | Sept|   |   | Oct|   |   | Nov|   |   | Dec|   |   | Jan|   |   | Feb|   |   | March|   | Apr|   | 1. Conducting aninterview|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | 2. Planning|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | 3. Problem|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | Definition|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | 4. System analysis|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | 5. Presentation|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | of the |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | proposal|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | Planned completion date – April 2012 Figure 3 (Gantt chart) This chart shows the work plan schedule in developing the system. Different activities were listed in order to determine the coverage of the certain activity. This chart also shows when the activities begin and end. C. Data Gathering Procedures The first procedure done by the researchers was conducting an interview to some of the staff of (PNP) for them to know how the PNP Officer processes the Record of Crime and Incidents and what are the problems encountered with regards to the transaction mentioned. When the reserchers found out that the office transactions are done manually, they sent a letter of request to the PNP officer. When the permission was granted, they conducted a formal interview to the PNP Officer , at the same time the questionnaire were given in order to gather more information Another way in which the researchers collected data was browsing the internet and reading some books. The researchers then prepared the proposal for presentation. D. Research Instruments Interview. A tool that was used to gather additional information on how the PNP Officer processed the Crime and Incidents Records. Questionnaires. A tool that was used to collect valuable information from the PNP Officer regarding the flow of processing the Records of Crime and Incidents. Observation. A tool that was also used to gather information by observing on how the Crime and Incidents Records is being done at the Office of the PNP. Journal. A tool that was used to record all observation and investigations done by the researchers so that they will be guided in the preparation and the final presentation of the proposal. Modeling tool. A tool that was used to describe the internal and external behavior of the system. It was composed of two models which is the essential and behavioral model. The environmental model describe the external behavior of the system. E. Data Analysis Data gathered from the research interview was carefully analyzed and interpreted through the cost and benefit analysis. Costs and Benefits estimates and totals at the equivalent money value of the benefits and cost of this system to establish whether this system is worthwhile and affordable to use. The purpose of the cost analysis is to calculate all the anticipated cost associated with the system. It concerns not only the cost of building the system, but also the cost of installing, operating and maintaining the system as well as the auxiliary cost, while the benefits analysis has two kinds. One is the tactical benefits that are often associated in reductions in clerical or PNP personnel and the other one is the strategic benefits which are an opportunity to save few clerical people as the ability to let the organization do things what would be possible with the current system. F. Cost and Benefit Analysis The purpose of the cost analysis is to calculate all the anticipated cost associated with the system. It concerns not only the cost of building the system, but also the cost of installing, operating and maintaining the system as well as the auxiliary cost, while the benefit analysis has two kinds. One is the tactical benefits that are often associated in reductions in clerical or PNP personnel and the other one is the strategic benefits which are an opportunity to save few clerical people as the ability to let the organization do things what would be possible with the current system. System Development Cost Visual Basic 6. 0Php 9,250. 00 Consultant Fee Php 9,025. 00 TotalPhp 18,275. 00 Present System Annual Operating Cost Office SuppliesPhp 15,465. 00 ElectricityPhp 2,564. 00 Hardware MaintenancePhp 2,000,00 TotalPhp 20,029. 00 Proposed System Annual Operating Cost SuppliesPhp 7,560. 00 ElectricityPhp 3,600. 40 Hardware MaintenancePhp 2,100. 00 Total Php 13,260. 40 Annual Operating Cost:Php 13,260. 40 Present Annual Operating Cost A. Supplies 1. Ink (6 tubes/yr @ 1,130/tube)Php 6,780. 00 2. Ribbon Cartridge (5 boxes/yr @ 145. 00/box)Php725. 00 3. Bond Paper (5 rims (US long)/yr @240. 00/rimPhp 1,200. 00 (5 rims(US short)/yr @ 235. 00/rimPhp 1,175. 00 4. Stapler (1 pc/yr @ 145. 00/pcPhp 145. 00 5. Stapler Wire (30 boxes/yr @ 50. 00/box)Php 1,500. 00 6. Folder (30 pcs/yr @ 8. 00/pc)Php 240. 00 7. Fastener (15 boxes/yr @ 150. 00/boxPhp 2,250. 00 8. Puncher (1 pcs/yr @ 220. 00/pcPhp 220. 00 9. Ballpen (30 pcs/yr @ 8. 00/pc)Php 240. 00 10. Liquid Erasure 1 bot. /yr @38. 00/pcPhp 38. 00 Total: Php 14,513. 00 Electricity (Annual Consumption) No. of CPU 1 No. of Monitor 1 No. of Printer 1 Monitor Type Monochrome Working Days 200 General Charge 3. 95 Hours Used/Days 6 System Unit Power Consumption/Day (6 hrs/ day * 400 watt) 2,400 watt/day HP Printer power Consumption/day (6 hrs/day * 90 watt) 540 w att/ day Monitor Power Consumption/ day (6 hrs / day * 30 watt) 180 watt / day Watt used for by device per day 2,400+540+180=3,120 watts Watt used for all device / yr (3,210 * 200) 624,000 watts / yr Kilowatt used / yr (624,000 watts / 1000) 624 kilowatts / yr Watt / yr = (watt / day) * (working days / yr) =3,120 * 200 =624,000 Amount Due = (kilowatt / yr) * Generation Charge =624 *3. 95 Php 2,464. 80 Proposed System Annual Operating Cost B. Supplies 11. Ink (3 tubes/yr @ 1,130/tube)Php 3,390. 00 12. Ribbon Cartridge (2 boxes/yr @ 145. 00/box)Php 290. 00 13. Bond Paper (4 rims (US long)/yr @230. 00/rimPhp 920. 0 (4 rims(US short)/yr @ 225. 00/rimPhp 900. 00 14. Stapler (1 pc/yr @ 145. 00/pcPhp 145. 00 15. Stapler Wire (20 boxes/yr @ 50. 00/box)Php 1,000. 00 16. Folder (22 pcs/yr @ 8. 00/pc)Php 176. 00 17. Fastener (12 boxes/yr @ 150. 00/boxPhp 1,800. 00 18. Puncher (1 pcs/yr @ 220. 00/pcPhp 220. 00 19. Ballpen (18 pcs/yr @ 8. 00/pc)Php 144. 00 20. Liquid Erasure (1 bot. /yr @38. 00/pcPhp 38. 00 Total: Php 9,023. 00 Electricity (Annual Consumption) No. of CPU 1 No. of Monitor 1 No. of Printer 1 Monitor Type Monochrome Working Days 200 General Charge 3. 95 Hours Used/Days 8 System Unit Power Consumption/Day (8 hrs/ day * 400 watt) 3,200 watt/day HP Printer power Consumption/day (8 hrs /day * 90 watt) 720 watt/ day Monitor Power Consumption/ day (8 hrs / day * 30 watt) 240 watt / day Watt used for by device per day 3,200+720+240=4,160 watts Watt used for all device / yr (4,160 * 200) 832,000 watts / yr Kilowatt used / yr (832,000 watts / 1000) 832 kilowatts / yr Watt / yr = (watt / day) * (working days / yr) 4,160 * 200 =832,000 Amount Due = (kilowatt / yr) * Generation Charge =832 *3. 95 Php 3,286. 40 Annual Benefit Present System Annual Operating Cost = Php 14,513. 00 Less Proposed Annual Operating Cost = Php 9,023 Annual Savings: Php 5,490. 00 Table of Annual Net Benefit Year| Annual saving| (1+i)n| Present value| Cumulative Value| 1| 5,490. 00 | 1. 024| 5621. 76| 5621. 76| 2| 5,490. 00 | 1. 049| 5759. 01| 11518. 02| 3| 5,490. 00 | 1. 74| 5896. 26| 17688. 78| 4| 5,490. 00 | 1. 100| 6039. 00| 24156. 00| 5| 5,490. 00 | 1. 126| 6181. 74| 30908. 07| This Table shows the table of annual net benefit. Project in percentage from 1-5 the cash flow. This table shows that Present value are computed by getting the product of annual saving and (1+i)n while the cumulative value is computed by getting the sum of the present value of that particular year and the cumulative value of the previous year. Where I = interest rate n = no. of years 3% = interest rate Payback Period 2+ Proposed System Annual Operating Cost- Cumulative Value in 3 Years Present Value in 3 Years The Cost and Benefits Analysis given above will help the Finance officer to decide whether to implement a computerized Land Patent Form System. It shows that the total annual operating cost of the present system is Php 14,513. 00; the researcher’s analysis reveals that the proposed system is lower operating cost, lower supplies expenses, less physical space needed, fewer operators required, faster turnaround time, greater accuracy, more comprehensive reports and improves mor ale-financial benefits school pegs at Php 5,490. 0 annually. Base on the cost-benefits estimates, the office would see a return on each investment in 2 years and seven months. In this case, it is very clear that the expected benefits of the proposed system do exceed the expected cost. G. Hardware and Software Hardware and software requirements are very essential in the automation of the system and they are the component in the system analysis. In choosing hardware factors to be considered include the following ability, affordability, speed and robustness of the hardware to save time and energy. H. Hardware and Software Configuration Hardware Configuration Computer: Personal Computer with Pentium (R) or higher processor Memory: 512MB of Random Access Memory or Higher Display: 32bit (1024 x 768 pixels) Monitor: video Graphics Accelerator (VGA) or Higher : Resolution monitor (Super VGA recommended) Hard Dick Requirements: At least 700MB of free space Video Display Adapter: 64MB (Any branded video card) Key board Features: Standard 101/102-Key or Microsoft PS/2 keyboard Mouse: Microsoft mouse compatible pointing device Power Supply: AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) 500watts amp; 220volts outlet UPS (Uninterrupted power Supply) 300watts amp; 220volts outlet Printer: EPSON LQ300+2 (dot matrix printer) : MP1600Le (photocopier/printer/scanner) Software Configuration Operating System: Microsoft windows 2009 Dark edition, Windows 98, Windows XP, SP2, SP3, Windows 2000 Application Software: MS Office Programming Language: Visual Basic I. Essential Model The essential model is a modeling tool shows what the system must do in order to satisfy the user’s requirements on how the system is implemented. It consist of two major components namely the environmental model and behavioral model. I. 1. Environmental model The environmental model is modeling tool that defines the boundary and the interaction between the system and the environment. It consists of the statement of the purpose event list and context diagram. I. 1. 1 Statement of Purpose The Manual Crime amp; Incidents Record System of the PNP Roxas Zamboanga del Norte is use to record update and edits information about Crime and Incidents such as Car crash, Robbery etc. and surveying of records. It is also used to generate reports such as Spot Report. I. 1. 2. Event List The event list is a narrative list of all activities that occur in the environment to which the system responses. It has seven events namely: 1. PNP Head request Spot Report 2. Responder Submitted Spot Report 3. Provincial Police Office Request Report 4. Provincial Police Requires Report 5. Regional Police Office request Report 6. PNP Roxas submits the spot report Responder PNP Head Spot Report Spot Report Manual Crime and Incidents Record Keeping System Note Spot Report Master list of crimes and incidents Master list of crimes and incidents Master list of crimes and incidents Master list of crimes and incidents Provincial Office Regional Office Figure 4. The Context Diagram that shows the Automated Crime and incident’s Record Keeping System. The figure shows the different external entities in which the system responses. The Responder, PNP head, Provincial Police Office, Regional Police Office are the persons involve in the processing of the Crimes and Incidents record system or information and in generation of reports. Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Flows – the connection between processes. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Data Store – store the collection of data. Responder Spot Report Spot Report Spot Report File Spot Report Process Request Figure 5. Event List 1: PNP Head Request Spot Report This figure shows that when the PNP Head requires a report, the Spot Report File and Master List of Crimes and Incidents File were retrieved to print the Spot Report and Master List of Crimes and Incidents Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Flows – the connection between processes. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Data Store – store the collection of data. Responder Process of the Spot Report Note Spot Report Master list of crimes and incidents Figure 6. Event List 2: PNP Head Request Spot Report This figure shows that when the PNP Head requires a report, the Spot Report File and Master List of Crimes and Incidents File were retrieved to print the Spot Report and Master List of Crimes and Incidents Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Legend: Flows – the connection between processes. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Data Store – store the collection of data. Provincial Police Headquarters Master list of crimes and incidents Master list of crimes and incidents Master list of crimes and incidents Spot Report File Process Request Figure 7. Event List 3: Provincial Police Headquarter request Master List This figure shows that when an PNP Head submit’s the Spot Report and Master List file to the Provincial Police Office. Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Flows – the connection between processes. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Data Store – store the collection of data. Process Request Spot Report PNP Head PNP Head submit’s the Spot Report Provincial Police Office Figure 8. Event List 4: PNP Head submit’s Spot Report This figure shows that when an PNP Head submit’s the Master List file to the Provincial Police Office. Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Flows – the connection between processes. Data Store – store the collection of data. Master list of crimes and incidents Regional Police Headquarters Master list of crimes and incidents Spot Report File Master list of crimes and incidents Process Request Figure 9. Event List 5: Regional Police Headquarter request Master List This figure shows that when the Regional Police Office requires a report, the Spot Report File and Master List of Crimes and Incidents File were retrieved to print the Spot Report and Master List of Crimes and Incidents Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Flows – the connection between processes. Data Store – store the collection of data. Process Request PNP Head Spot Report PNP Head submit’s the Spot Report Regional Police Office Figure 10. Event List 6: PNP Head submit’s Spot Report This figure shows that when an PNP Head submit’s the Master List file to the Regional Police Office. Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Flows – the connection between processes. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Data Store – store the collection of data. 1. 2 Behavioral Model This model is primary concern on the internal behavior of the system to interest with the environment. This model includes Data Flow diagram, Process specifications and Data dictionary. The behavioral model includes the following: 1. 2. 1 Data flow diagram (DFD) –are used to describe how the system transforms information. They define how information processed and stored and identify how the information flows through the processes. 1. 2. 2 Data dictionary – specify relationship between each of said user application. Program and said sets of data stored in said database associated with each of said user application programs. 1. 2. 3 Process Specifications – a step by step flow of transaction on each process. Top Level Data Flow Diagram 1. Process Submission of Spot Report 2. Process Request Spot Report File Spot Report Spot Report Master list of crimes and incidents Spot Report File Spot Report Master list of crimes and incidents Figure 11. This figure shows entire flow of the data through the system. It implies how the transaction is processed and described how the different process involved. Data Store – store the collection of data. Flows – the connection between processes. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Legend: 1. Process Submission of Spot Report Spot Report Spot Report File Spot Report Figure 12 Process Submission of Spot Report This figure shows that during the process of Submission of Spot Report. Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Flows – the connection between processes. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Data Store – store the collection of data. Spot Report Master list of crimes and incidents 2. Process Request Master list of crimes and incidents Spot Report Spot Report File Figure 13 Process Request This figure shows that during the Process of Request and Release of Spot Report and Master List File of Crime and Incidents. Legend: Terminal – the external entities of the individual or group of people. Data Store – store the collection of data. Process – it represent various individual functions that system carries out. Flows – the connection between processes. J. 2. Data Dictionary Alphanumeric=* either number or letter or combination of both* Address=*address of the person where involve in an incidents or crime Character=*a letter, number and special character*s Contact No. =*Contact No. of Person Involve =@{numeric} Date =*(mm/dd/yy)* =@{numeric} Name =Name of person =@{character} Numeric =*a number (0-9)* Request information =*an information of a particular crime or incidents* =@{alphanumeric} Record =*It refers to all the information of the requested item which is being inputted by Responder* =@{alphanumeric} Record File =*refers to the file in which all the record information about the Crime and Incidents is stored. This file is also used during retrieval of information* @{alphanumeric} Spot Report =*refers to the file in which all the record information about the Crimes and Incidents is stored. This file is also used during retrieval of information* =@{alphanumeric} ={Full name}+{age}+{address}+{sex}+{time}+{date}+{place}+{evidence}+{Materials}+{summary of the incidents} J. 3 Process Specification Process 1: Submission of Spot Report Begin Open Spot Report File If Close Close Spot Report File End If End Process 2: Process Request Begin Open Spot Report File If Close Close Spot Report File End If End How to cite Police Thesis, Papers

Corporate Response to Human Resource Management

Question: Do Business Managers have responsibilities to anyone other than company shareholders? If so, to whom, and why? Answer: Introduction: The particular project deals with the business managers responsibilities of the company. In this part here the researcher require to clarify weather the business executive has the responsibilities to someone other than company shareholders if yes then why. The report explains how to carry out business properly would be the challenging part. Any business resolution might be judge as correct or incorrect, ethical or unethical, illegal or legal. Business manager has a lot of responsibilities rather than company shareholders similar to business deals with the employees, environment, and underprivileged or disabled people (Alvarez, 2015). The following are part were business manager deals with the responsibilities without the shareholders: Employees- Employees are the livelihood of the business. A person who works unpaid or permanent under a agreement of employment is known as employees. Without employees business cannot run so employee is the most important part for the business. Employees and business associates might have the responsibility of technical authority. They should be capable to carry out the work correctly. This means that they present the position of persons with all the necessary ability and competencies to assume their range of responsibilities. Environment- Business environment deals with the internal and external factors of environment including political factors, macro and micro factors etc. Business ethics are the values and principles that establish suitable behavior in business organizations. The suitability of performance in business is resolute by consumers, challenger, government supervisor, interest group, and the community, and every individuals private ethical principles and morals (Dyck, 2014). Underprivileged- Some 2.5 billion citizens around the worldwide are presently unnoticed by supplier of prescribed financial facilities for being too poor. Presently this money sits outer of the formal bank segment, building it unavailable as a probable resource of sustainable financial development.To help you appreciate ethical problem that perplexes businesspeople nowadays, we will acquire a concise look at some of them in this segment. The vast amount of news plan exploratory program has enlarged customer and employee consciousness of organizational misbehavior (Skrzypczyńska, 2015). As well, the huge number of cable direct and Internet income has enhanced the consciousness of ethical issues among the common public. Disabled people- The business preparation is the most vital part for anyone demanding to start an venture, whether disabled or not. This plan draws detailed information concerning the probable business, as well as reason, charges, demographics, promotion plans and hazard.Disabled people can do this throughout a variety of network relations, partner with other people with disabilities and group property. They can generate promotion plans that help out market the business and give people the chance to get the declaration out (Tench and Jones, 2015). Conclusion: While concluding here the researcher describes about the business ethical issues and also describe about rather dealing with their shareholders business also deals with the other parts like business deals with their employees, their environment of ethical and non ethical issues, disabled people in the business etc. References Alvarez, A. (2015). Corporate response to human resource disclosure recommendations. Social Responsibility Journal, 11(2), pp.306-323. Dyck, R. (2014). Youth Education for Social Responsibility. Syst. Res., 32(2), pp.168-174. Skrzypczyńska, K. (2015). Social responsibility of companies operating in Poland. Journal of Corporate Responsibility and Leadership, 1(1), p.71. Tench, R. and Jones, B. (2015). Social media: the Wild West of CSR communications. Social Responsibility Journal, 11(2), pp.290-305.

Old Yeller Essays - Rabies, English-language Films, Films

Old Yeller OLD YELLER This was one of my favorite books during my childhood days. The book is a classic, and Disney later made it into a motion picture. the storys climax develops quickly by telling stories and adventures of a boy named Travis and his old stray yellow dog named Yeller.At the introduction of the book Travis is plowing corn in the garden when an old yellow darts bye and causes the mule to jump. He chases the dog out of the garden and curses at him. Then a few days later the stray dog ate some of the deer meat that was very important for the familys survival. Travis was very angered and threatened to kill the mischievious yellow dog, but his younger brother, Arliss, would not allow this. There are many more adventures that the book tells of Old Yeller throughout the story and I am going to put a heavy emphasis on the three that I enjoyed the most. First of all Travis and his brother Arliss were out in the forest with their mother and were cutting wood. This was going to be used to mend a fence that had broke in the yard. While Arliss was off on his own exploring that day he ran across a small bear cub and began to play with it. Travis yelled at him to turn the cub loose. Arliss could see the mother bear coming, but he was too frightened to turn the cub loose. Travis and his mother ran down the hill to assist Arliss, but they knew that they were going to be too late. All of the sudden Old Yeller came like a flash and attacked the bear from her side. The bear turned quickly to fight the dog off. Travis hoisted Arliss up and threw him to their mother. Travis then began to run and shout at the two fighting animals. The bear tucked its tail and left. Old Yeller had saved the life of Arliss and they were all very appreciative of what Yeller had done. One of the next highlights in the book is when Old Yeller knocks down Rose, the milk cow. Travis and Old Yeller were out in the woods looking for Rose because she had been gone for three days without a trace. Rose had been expecting to give birth at any time and went off by herself to do this. Travis finally located Rose and she had already given birth to the calf. Travis chased after the calf to lift it up. While attempting to do this Rose charged towards him. It was at that time that Travis began to realize what a great dog he really had. Old Yeller dashed and knocked down Rose then as she charged time and again at Yeller the dog tripped her up several times. Later on that day while Travis was milking Rose she kept kicking the milk bucket over and would not allow Travis to milk her. In order to put a stop to this incident Travis called over Old Yeller to keep Rose in line. Old Yeller stood directly in front of Rose and thrashed forward staring at her. The heifer was so frightened that she did not even try to budge. The final adventure of Old Yeller that I would like to portray is very tragic and sad. It begins with Rose contracting a disease called hydrophobia. This is an extremely fatal disease which brings fourth foaming at the mouth of the animal. Rose, the cow, is killed and then burned so that no other animals would eat her and spread the disease. Mama and her daughter Lisbeth were burning the cow when a gray wolf tried to ambush them. Old Yeller came to their rescue like a bolt of lightning and wrestled with the wolf. Both animals were biting and clawing at each other. Travis then retrieved his rifle, took aim, and shot the wolf. The wolf also had hydrophobia so that meant that Old Yeller had the chance of obtaining the sickness as well. After this incident they were forced to lock Old Yeller up in a woodshed for a few weeks while keeping an eye on him to make sure that he did not become ill.

History of Feral Rabbits in Australia

History of Feral Rabbits in Australia Rabbits are an invasive species that has caused immense ecological devastation to the continent of Australia for over 150 years. They procreate with uncontrollable velocity, consume cropland like locusts, and contribute significantly to soil erosion. Although some of the governments rabbit eradication methods have been successful in controlling their spread, the overall rabbit population in Australia is still well beyond sustainable means. History of Rabbits in Australia In 1859, a man named Thomas Austin, a landowner in Winchelsea, Victoria imported 24 wild rabbits from England and released them into the wild for sport hunting. Within a number of years, those 24 rabbits multiplied into millions. By the 1920s, less than 70 years since its introduction, the rabbit population in Australia ballooned to an estimated 10 billion, reproducing at a rate of 18 to 30 per single female rabbit per year. The rabbits started to migrate across Australia at a rate of 80 miles a year. After destroying two million acres of Victorias floral lands, they traversed across the states of New South Wales, South Australia, and Queensland. By 1890, rabbits were spotted all the way in Western Australia. Australia is an ideal location for the prolific rabbit. The winters are mild, so they are able to breed nearly year-round. There is an abundance of land with limited industrial development. Natural low vegetation provides them with shelter and food, and years of geographic isolation has left the continent with no natural predator for this new invasive species. Currently, the rabbit inhabits around 2.5 million square miles of Australia with an estimated population of over 200 million. Feral Australian Rabbits as Ecological Problem Despite its size, much of Australia is arid and not fully fit for agriculture. What fertile soil the continent has is now threatened by the rabbit. Excessive grazing by the rabbit has diminished vegetative cover, allowing wind to erode away top soil. Soil erosion affects revegetation and water absorption. Land with limited top soil can also lead to agricultural run-off and increased salinity. The livestock industry in Australia has been widely affected by the rabbit. As food yields decrease, so does the cattle and sheep population. To compensate, many farmers extend their livestock range and diet, farming a wider expanse of the land and thus further contributing to the problem. The agricultural industry in Australia has lost billions of dollars from the direct and indirect effects of the rabbit infestation. The introduction of the rabbit has also strained the native wildlife of Australia. Rabbits have been blamed for the destruction of the eremophila plant and various species of trees. Because rabbits will feed on seedlings, many trees are never able to reproduce, leading to local extinction. Additionally, due to direct competition for food and habitat, the population of many native animals such as the greater bilby and the pig-footed bandicoot has declined dramatically. Feral Rabbit Control Measures For much of the 19th century, the most common methods of feral rabbit control have been trapping and shooting. But between 1901 and 1907, the Australian government went with a national approach by building three rabbit-proof fences to protect the pastoral lands of Western Australia. The first fence stretched 1,138 miles vertically down the entire western side of the continent, starting from a point near Cape Keravdren in the north and ending in Starvation Harbor in the south. It is considered to be the worlds longest continuous standing fence. The second fence was built roughly parallel to the first, 55 - 100 miles further west, branching off from the original to the southern coast, stretching 724 miles. The final fence extends 160 miles horizontally from the second to the western coast of the country. Despite the enormity of the project, the fence was deemed unsuccessful, since many rabbits traversed over to the protected side during the construction period. Additionally, many have dug their way through the fence, as well. The Australian government also experimented with biological methods to control the feral rabbit population. In 1950, mosquitoes and fleas carrying the myxoma virus were released into the wild. This virus, found in South America, only affects rabbits. The release was highly successful, as an estimated 90-99 percent of the rabbit population in Australia was wiped out. Unfortunately, because mosquitoes and fleas do not typically inhabit arid areas, many of the rabbits living in the continents interior were not affected. A small percentage of the population also developed a natural genetic immunity to the virus and they continued to reproduce. Today, only about 40 percent of rabbits are still susceptible to this disease. To combat the reduced effectiveness of myxoma, flies carrying a rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD), was released in Australia in 1995. Unlike myxoma, RHD is able to infiltrate the arid areas. The disease helped reduced rabbit populations by 90 percent in arid zones. However, like myxomatosis, RHD is still limited by geography. Since its host is a fly, this disease has very little impact on the cooler, higher rainfall regions of coastal Australia where flies are less prevalent. Moreover, rabbits are beginning to develop resistance to this disease, as well. Today, many farmers still use conventional means of eradicating rabbits from their land. Although the rabbit population is a fraction of what it was in the early 1920s, it continues to burden the countrys eco- and agricultural systems. They have lived on Australia for over 150-years and until a perfect virus can be found, theyll probably be there for several hundred more. References Australia Government: Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2011, May 27). Feral Animals in Australia. Retrieved from: environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive-species/feral-animals-australiaABC Science (2009, April 09). Australias battle with the bunny. Retrieved from: abc.net.au/science/articles/2009/04/08/2538860.htmBroomhall, F.H. The Longest Fence in the World. Carlisle, Western Australia: Hesperian Press, 1991

60 Writing Topics for Extended Definitions

60 Writing Topics for Extended Definitions Simply put, a definition is a statement of the meaning of a word or phrase. An extended definition goes beyond what can be found in a dictionary,  offering an expanded analysis and illustration  of a concept that might be abstract, controversial, unfamiliar, or frequently misunderstood. Take, for example, writings such as William James Pragmatic Theory of Truth or John Bergers The Meaning of Home. Approaching the Abstract Abstract concepts, including many of the broad terms in the list that follows, need to be brought to earth with an example to relate what they mean to your reader and to get your point or opinion across. You could illustrate the concepts with anecdotes from your personal life or examples from the news or current events, or write an opinion piece.  Theres no single method for  developing  and  organizing  a paragraph or essay by extended definition. The 60 concepts listed here can be defined in various ways and from different points of view. Brainstorming and Prewriting Start with brainstorming your topic. If you work well with lists, write the word at the top of the paper and fill the rest of the page with all the things that the word makes you think of, feel, see, or even smell, without stopping. Its OK to go off on tangents, as you might find a surprising connection that could make a powerful, insightful, or even humorous essay. Alternatively, brainstorm by writing the word in the middle of your paper and connect other related words to it and each other. As you develop your angle, think about the concepts background, features, characteristics, and parts. What is the concepts opposite? What are its effects on you or others? Something in your list or word map will spark a writing idea or theme to use to illustrate the abstract concept, and then its off to the races. If you run into a dead end the first time, go back to your list and pick another idea. Its possible that your first draft turns out to be prewriting and leads to a better idea that can be developed further and can possibly even incorporate the prewriting exercise. Time spent writing is time spent exploring and is never wasted, as sometimes it takes a bit of pursuit to discover the perfect idea. If seeing examples will help spark your essay, take a look at Gifts, by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Gore Vidals Definition of Prettiness, or A Definition of Pantomime, by Julian Barnes. 60 Topic Suggestions Looking for a place to start? Here are 60 words and phrases so broad that writings on them could be infinite: TrustKindnessSexismGumptionRacismSportsmanshipHonorModestySelf-assuranceHumilityDedicationSensitivityPeace of mindRespectAmbitionRight to privacyGenerosityLazinessCharismaCommon senseTeam playerMaturityIntegrityHealthy appetiteFrustrationOptimismSense of humorLiberalConservativeA good (or bad) teacher or professorPhysical fitnessFeminismA happy marriageTrue friendshipCourageCitizenshipSuccessA good (or bad) coachIntelligencePersonalityA good (or bad) roommatePolitical correctnessPeer pressureLeadershipPersistenceResponsibilityHuman rightsSophisticationSelf-respectHeroismThriftSlothVanityPrideBeautyGreedVirtueProgressA good (or bad) bossA good (or bad) parent

Home Health Agency Center Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Home Health Agency Center - Essay Example which help members gain easy access to the information they need. In particular, on clicking Home Health PPS, visitors will gain information on the background of the payment system being implemented by CMS for home health agencies (HHAs). The page also provides general information on the laws and systems currently in place in terms of payment of home health services such as computation of required payments for patients requiring readmission or those visiting HHAs frequently within the 60-day episode. Additionally, the site directs visitors to other sites they can visit for more information on HHAs. There are also downloadable pdf files on regulations currently implemented. Generally, the information the CTMS.gov provides in its website are well explained and useful. They serve as definite guide to home health users as well as relevant agencies. Visitors exploring the site can expect fully comprehensive information on home health programs including history, regulation, duties of providers, etc. By reading from the site, users and service providers alike will gain a good perspective of their rights and duties in connection with home health

Business Transformation of Moevenpick Hotels and Resorts using VRINE, Essay

Business Transformation of Moevenpick Hotels and Resorts using VRINE, CAGE and Corporate Entity (Diversification) Frameworks - Essay Example MÃ ¶venpick Hotels and Resorts AG has focused on expanding into its traditional regions of Europe, Africa, Middle East and Asia. Such diversified presence in various regions of the world therefore indicates that it has been able to successfully expand in different markets. In this paper I will be concentrating on the MÃ ¶venpick Hotels and Resorts AG to seek the possibility of transforming the company using the VRINE model, CAGE as well as Corporate Entity (Diversification) models for better opportunities and higher market share. MÃ ¶venpick Hotels and Resorts AG manages 70 hotels of a total of 17,646 rooms in 24 countries in the market of upscale business hotels, holiday resorts and residences. Business hotels are 57% of the company’s managed hotels; resorts are 32% of the company’s managed hotels and 11% cruises. MÃ ¶venpick Hotels and Resorts AG has five regional offices in; Zurich acting as the corporate office for MÃ ¶venpick Hotels and Resorts AG and managing the region of Europe, Thailand, managing the region of Asia Pacific, United Arab Emirates, managing the region of the Middle East and India, Shanghai, Managing the region of China and Cairo, Managing the region of Africa. It is an analytical framework suggesting that an organization with resources and capabilities which are Valuable, Rare, Inimitable, Non-substitutable and Exploitable will gain a competitive advantage in the market. (Quizlet, 2012). It is however, critical to understand what actually resources and capabilities are and how they can actually provide a firm its overall competitive advantage over other firms in the industry. Barney (Cited in Peng and South-Western, 2008:3) defined the resources as ‘The tangible and intangible assets a firm uses to choose and implement its strategies’ while capability is a firm’s ability to make use of its resources in a highly productive way. (Santiago, 2003) Resources can be either tangible such as land and

Semantics and Theories of Semantics Essay Example for Free

Semantics and Theories of Semantics Essay Semantics is the study of meaning in language. We know that language is used to express meanings which can be understood by others. But meanings exist in our minds and we can express what is in our minds through the spoken and written forms of language (as well as through gestures, action etc. ). The sound patterns of language are studied at the level of phonology and the organisation of words and sentences is studied at the level of morphology and syntax. These are in turn organised in such a way that we can convey meaningful messages or receive and understand messages. ‘How is language organised in order to be meaningful? ’ This is the question we ask and attempt to answer at the level of semantics. Semantics is that level of linguistic analysis where meaning is analysed. It is the most abstract level of linguistic analysis, since we cannot see or observe meaning as we can observe and record sounds. Meaning is related very closely to the human capacity to think logically and to understand. So when we try to analyse meaning, we are trying to analyse our own capacity to think and understand, our own ability to create meaning. Semantics concerns itself with ‘giving a systematic account of the nature of meaning’ (Leech). Difficulties in the Study of Meaning The problem of ‘meaning’ is quite difficult, it is because of its toughness that some linguists went on to the extent of excluding semantics from linguistics. A well-known structuralist made the astonishing statement that ‘linguistic system of a languagedoes not include the semantics. The system is abstract, it is a signaling system, and as soon as we study semantics we are no longer studying language but the semantic system associated with language. The structralists were of the opinion that it is only the form of language which can be studied, and not the abstract functions. Both these are misconceptions. Recently a serious interest has been taken in the various problems of semantics. And semantics is being studied not only by the linguists but also by philosophers, psychologists, scientists, anthropologists and sociologists. Scholars have long puzzled over what words mean or what they represent, or how they are related to reality. They have at times wondered whether words are more real than objects, and they have striven to find the essential meanings of words. It may be interesting to ask whether words do have essential meaning. For example, difficulties may arise in finding out the essential meaning of the word table in water table, dining table, table amendment, and the table of 9. An abstract word like good creates even more problems. Nobody can exactly tell what good really means, and how a speaker of English ever learns to use the word correctly. So the main difficulty is to account facts about essential meanings, multiple meanings, and word conditions. The connotating use of words adds further complications to any theorizations about meaning, particularly their uses in metaphor and poetic language. Above all is the question : where does meaning exist: in the speaker or the listener or in both, or in the context or situation ? Words are in general convenient units to state meaning. But words have meanings by virtue of their employment in sentences, most of which contain more than one word. The meaning of a sentence, though largely dependent on the meaning of its component words taken individually, is also affected by prosodic features. The question whether word may be semantically described or in isolation, is more a matter of degree than of a simple answer yes or no. It is impossible to describe meaning adequately any other way except by saying how words are typically used as part of longer sentences and how these sentences are used. The meanings of sentences and their components are better dealt with in linguistics in turns of how they function than exclusively in terms of what they refer to. Words are tools; they become important by the function they perform, the job they do, the way they are used in certain sentences. In addition to reference and function, scholars have also attached import talkie to popular historical considerations, especially etymology, while studying word-meanings. Undobtedly the meaning of any word is casually the product of continuous changes in its antecedent meanings or uses, and in many cases it is the collective product of generations of cultural history. Dictionaries often deal with this sort of information if it is available, but in so ding they are passing beyond the bounds of synchronic statement to the separate linguistic realm of historical explanation. Different answers have been given to the questions related to meaning. Psychologists have tried to assess the availability of certain kinds of responses to objects, to experiences, and to words themselves. Philosophers have proposed a variety of systems and theories to account for the data that interest them. Communication scientists have developed information theory so that they can use mathematical models to explain exactly what is predictable and what is not predictable when messages are channeled through various kinds of communication networks. From approaches like these a complex array of conceptions of meaning emerges. Lexical and Grammatical Meaning When we talk about meaning, we are talking about the ability of human beings to understand one another when they speak. This ability is to some extent connected with grammar. No one could understand: hat one the but red green on bought tried Rameez. while Rameez tried on the red had but bought the green one causes no difficulties. Yet there are numerous sentences which are perfectly grammatical, but meaningless. The most famous example is Chomsky’s sentence â€Å"Colourless green ideas sleep furiously†. Similar other examples are: * The tree ate the elephant. * The pregnant bachelor gave birth to six girls tomorrow. * The table sneezed. In a sentence such as Did you understand the fundamentals of linguistics? A linguist has to take into account at least two different types of meaning: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. Full words have some kind of intrinsic meaning. They refer to objects, actions and qualities that can be identified in the external world, such as table, banana, sleep, eat, red. Such words are said to have lexical meaning. Empty words have little or no intrinsic meaning. They exist because of their grammatical function in the sentence. For example, and is used to join items, or indicates alternative, of sometimes indicates possession. These words have grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning refers mainly to the meaning of grammatical items as did, which, ed. Grammatical meaning may also cover notions such as ‘subject’ and ‘object’, sentence types as ’interrogative’, ‘imperative’ etc. Because of its complexity, grammatical meaning is extremely difficult to study. As yet, no theory of semantics has been able to handle it portly. But the study of lexical items is more manageable. What is Meaning? Philosophers have puzzled over this question for over 2000 years. Their thinking begins from the question of the relationship between words and the objects which words represent. For example, we may ask: What is the meaning of the word ‘cow’? One answer would be that it refers to an animal who has certain properties, that distinguish it from other animals, who are called by other names. Where do these names come from and why does the word ‘cow’ mean only that particular animal and none other? Some thinkers say that there is no essential connection between the word ‘cow’ and the animal indicated by the word, but we have established this connection by convention and thus it continues to be so. Others would say that there are some essential attributes of that animal which we perceive in our minds and our concept of that animal is created for which we create a corresponding word. According to this idea, there is an essential correspondence between the sounds of words and their meanings, e. g. , the word ‘buzz’ reproduces ‘the sound made by a bee’. It is easy to understand this, but not so easy to understand how ‘cow’ can mean’ a four-legged bovine’—there is nothing in the sound of the word ‘cow’ to indicate that, (Children often invent words that illustrate the correspondence between sound and meaning: they may call a cow ‘moo-moo’ because they hear it making that kind of sound. ) The above idea that words in a language correspond to or stand for the actual objects in the world is found in Plato’s dialogue CratyIus. However, it applies only to some words and not to others, for example, words that do not refer to objects, e. g. ‘love’, ‘hate’. This fact gives rise to the view held by later thinkers, that the meaning of a word is not the object it refers to, but the concept of the object that exists in the mind. Moreover, as de Saussure pointed out, the relation between the word (signifier) and the concept (signified) is an arbitrary one, i.e. the word does not resemble the concept. Also, when we try to define the meaning of a word we do so by using other words. So, if We try to explain the meaning of ‘table’ we need to use other words such as ‘four’, ‘legs’, and ‘wood’ and these words in turn can be explained only by means of other words. In their book, The Meaning of Meaning, L. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards made an attempt to define meaning. When we use the word ‘mean’, we use it in different ways. ‘I mean to do this’ is a way of expressing our intention. ‘The red signal means stop’ is a way of indicating what the red signal signifies. Since all language consists of signs, we can say that every word is a sign indicating something—usually a sign indicates other signs. Ogden and Richards give the following list of some definitions of ‘meaning’. Meaning can be any of the following: 1. An intrinsic property of some thing 2. Other words related to that word in a dictionary 3. The connotations of a word (that is discussed below) 4. The thing to which the speaker of that word refers 5. The thing to which the speaker of that word should refer  6. The thing to which the speaker of that word believes himself to be referring 7. The thing to which the hearer of that word believes is being referred to. These definitions refer to many different ways in which meaning is understood. One reason for the range of definitions of meaning is that words (or signs) in a language are of different types. Some signs indicate meaning in a direct manner, e. g. an arrow (?  ®) indicates direction. Some signs are representative of the thing indicated, e. g. onomatopoeic wards such as ‘buzz’. ‘tinkle’ ‘ring’; even ‘cough’. ‘slam’, ‘rustle have onomatopoeic qualities. Some signs do not have any resemblance to the thing they refer to, but as they stand for that thins, they are symbolic. Taking up some of the above definitions of meaning, we can discuss the different aspects of meaning o a word as follows: (i) The logical or denotative meaning. This is the literal meaning of a word indicating the idea or concept to which it refers. concept is a minimal unit of meaning which could be called a ‘sememe’ in the same way as the unit of sound is called a ‘phoneme’ and is like the ‘morpheme h Is structure and organisation. Just as the phoneme /b/ may be defined as a bilatial + voiced + plosive, the word ‘man’ may be defined as a concept consisting of a structure of meaning ‘human + male + adult’ expressed through the basic morphological unit ‘m + ? + n’. All the three qualities are logical attributes of which the concept ‘man’ is made. They are the minimal qualities that the concept must possess in order to be a distinguishable concept, e. g. if any of these changes, the concept too changes. So ‘human + female + adult’ would not be the concept referred to by the word ‘man’, since it is a different concept. (ii) The connotative meaning. This is the additional meaning that a concept carries. It is defined as ‘the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to over and above its purely conceptual content’ (Leech, 1981). That is, apart from its logical or essential attributes, there is a further meaning attached to a word, which comes from its reference to other things in the real world. In the real world, such a word may be associated with some other features or attributes. For example, the logical or denotative meaning of the word ‘woman’ is the concept, ‘human + female + adult’. To it may be added the concept of ‘weaker sex’ or ‘frailty’. These were the connotations or values associated with the concept of ‘woman’. Thus connotative meaning consists of the attributes associated with a concept. As we know, these associations come into use over a period of time in a particular culture and can change with change in time. While denotative meaning remains stable since it defines the essential attributes of a concept, connotative meaning changes as it is based on associations made to the concept; these associations may change. (iii) The social meaning: This is the meaning that a word or a phrase conveys about the circumstances of its use. That is, the meaning of a word is understood according to the different style and situation in which the word is used, e. g. though the words ‘domicile’, ‘residence’, ‘abode’, ‘home’ all refer to the same thing (i. e. their denotative meaning is the same), each word belongs to a particular situation of use—’domicile’ is used in an official context, ‘residence’ in a formal context, ‘abode’ is a poetic use and ‘home’ is an ordinary use. Where one is used, the other is not seen as appropriate. Social meaning derives from an awareness of the style in which something is written and spoken and of the relationship between speaker and hearer—whether that relationship is formal, official, casual, polite, or friendly. (iv) The thematic meaning: This is the meaning which is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organises the message in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis. It is often felt, for example, that an active sentence has a different meaning from its passive equivalent although its conceptual meaning seems to be the same. In the sentences: Mrs. Smith donated the first prize The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith the thematic meaning is different. In the first sentence it appears that we know who Mrs. Smith is, so the new information on which the emphasis is laid is ‘the first prize’. In the second sentence, however, the emphasis is laid on ‘Mrs. Smith’. It is sometimes difficult to demarcate all these categories of meaning. For example, it may be difficult to distinguish between conceptual meaning and social meaning in the following sentences: He stuck the key in his pocket. He put the key in his pocket. We could argue that these two sentences are conceptually alike, but different in social meaning––the first one adopts a casual or informal style, the second adopts a neutral style. However, we could also say that the two verbs are conceptually different: ‘stuck’ meaning ‘put carelessly and quickly’, which is a more precise meaning than simply ‘put’. Of course, it is a matter of choice which word the speaker wishes to use, a more precise one or a neutral one. Some Terms and Distinctions in Semantics (a) Lexical and grammatical meaning Lexical or word meaning is the meaning of individual lexical items. These are of two types: the open class lexical items, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, and the close class items such as prepositions, conjunctions and deter-miners. The open class items have independent meanings, which are defined in the dictionary. The closed class items have meaning only in relation to other words in a sentence; this is called grammatical meaning, which can be understood from a consideration of the structure of the sentence and its relation with other sentences. For example, in the sentence The tiger killed the elephant’, there are three open class items: tiger, kill, elephant. Out of these, two are nouns and one is a verb. There is one closed class tern— ’the’—which occurs before each noun. It has no independent reference of its own and can have meaning only when placed before the nouns. This distinction may help in understanding ambiguity. Thus, if there is ambiguity in a sentence, this can be a lexical ambiguity or a grammatical ambiguity. For example, in the sentence: I saw him near the bank, there is lexical ambiguity, since the item ‘bank’ can mean (a) the financial institution or (b) the bank of a river. However, in the case of: ‘The parents of the bride and the groom were waiting’ there is grammatical ambiguity as the sentence structure can be interpreted in two ways: (a) the two separate noun phrases being ‘the parents of the bride’, and ‘the groom’; or (b) the single noun phrase ‘the parents’ within which there is the prepositional phrase ‘of the bride and the groom’ containing two nouns. The first type of coordination gives us the meaning that the people who were waiting were the parents of the bride and the groom himself. The second type of coordination gives us the meaning that the people who were waiting were the parents of the bride and the parents of the groom. The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meanings. This becomes clear if we compare a pair of sentences such as the following: The dog bit the postman. The postman bit the dog. These two sentences differ in meaning. But the difference in meaning is not due to the difference in the meaning of the lexical items ‘postman’ and ‘dog’, but in the grammatical relationship between the two. In one case  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœdog’ is the subject and ‘postman’ is the object, in the other case the grammatical roles are reversed. There is also the relationship of these nouns with the verb ‘bit’. In the first sentence, the action is performed by the dog, which conforms to our knowledge about dogs, but in the second sentence, the action is performed by the postman which does not match with our knowledge about what postmen do, so there is a sense of incongruity about the second sentence. Only in some exceptional circumstance could we expect it to be comprehensible. (b) Sense and Reference. It has been explained earlier that signs refer to concepts as well as to other signs. A sign is a symbol that indicates a concept. This concept is the reference, which refers in turn to some object in the real world, called the referent. The relationship between linguistic items (e. g. words, sentences) and the non-linguistic world of experience is a relationship of reference. It can be understood by the following diagram given by Ogden and Richards: The objects in the real world are referents, the concept which we have of them in our minds is the reference and the symbol we use to refer to them is the word, or linguistic item. As we have seen, we can explain the meaning of a linguistic item by using other words. The relation of a word with another word is a sense-relation. Therefore, sense is the complex system of relationships that holds between the linguistic items themselves. Sense is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations, i. e. relations within the system of the language itself, such as similarity between words, opposition, inclusion, and pre-supposition. Sense relations include homonymy, polysemy, synonymy and antonymy. Homonyms are different items (lexical items or structure words) with the same phonetic form. They differ only in meaning, e. g. the item ‘ear’ meaning ‘organ of hearing’ is a homonym of the item ‘ear’ meaning ‘a stem of wheat’. Homonymy may be classified as: (a) Homography: a phenomenon of two or more words having the same spellings but different pronunciation or meaning, e. g. lead /led/ = metal; lead/li:d/ = verb. (b) Homophony: a phenomenon of two or more words having the same pronunciation but different meanings or spellings, e. g.sea/see, knew/new, some/ sum, sun/son. It is difficult to distinguish between homonymy and polysemy as in polysemy, the ‘same’ lexical item has different meanings, e. g. ‘bank*’, ‘face*’: Two lexical items can be considered as synonyms if they have the same denotative, connotative and social meaning and can replace each other in all contexts of occurrence. Only then can they be absolutely synonymous. For example, ‘radio’ and ‘wireless’ co-existed for a while as synonyms, being used as alternatives by speakers of British English. But now, ‘wireless’ is not used frequently. What we consider as synonyms in a language are usually near-equivalent items, or descriptive items. For example, ‘lavatory’, ‘toilet’, ‘WC’, ‘washroom’ are descriptive or near-equivalent synonyms in English. Antonyms are lexical items which are different both in form as well as meaning. An antonym of a lexical item conveys the opposite sense, e. g. single-married, good-bad. But this gives rise to questions of what is an opposite or contrasted meaning. For example, the opposite of ‘woman’ could be ‘man’ or girl’ since the denotation of both is different from that of ‘woman’. Thus we need to modify our definition of antonymy. We can say that some items are less compatible than other items. There can be nearness of contrast or remoteness of contrast. Thus ‘man’ or ‘girl’ is contrasted to ‘woman’ but less contrasted than ‘woman’ and ‘tree’. In this sense, ‘woman’ and ‘man’ are related, just as ‘girl’ and ‘boy’ are related, in spite of being contrasted. Other meaning-relations of a similar nature are: mare/stallion, cow/bull, ram/ewe etc. , all based on gender distinctions. Another set of meaning relations can be of age and family relationship: father/son, uncle/nephew, aunt/ niece. In this, too, there are differences in the structures of different languages. In Urdu, for instance, gender distinction or contrast may be marked by a change in the ending of the noun (e. g. /gho:? a:/gho:? i:/ for ‘horse’ and ‘mare’ respectively) or, in some cases, by a different word (e. g. /ga:e/bael/ for ‘cow’ and ‘bull’ respectively). In English, there are usually different words to mark contrast in gender except in a few cases (e. g. elephant, giraffe). The evolution of a complex system of sense relations is dependent on the way in which the objects of the world and the environment are perceived and conceptualized by the people who make that language. For example, Eskimos have many words related in meaning to ‘snow’ because snow in different forms is a part o their environment. In English, there are only two ‘snow’ and ‘ice’, while in Urdu there is only one: ‘baraf’. This reflects the importance that a particular object or phenomena may have for a certain community. Another kind of sense-relationship is hyponymy. Hyponymy is the relation that holds between a more general and more specific lexical item. For example, ‘flower’ is a more general item, and ‘rose’, ‘lily’, etc. are more specific. The more specific item is considered a hyponym of the more general item—’rose’ is a hyponym of ‘flower’. The specific item includes the meaning of the general. When we say ‘rose’, the meaning of ‘flower’ is included in its meaning. ‘Rose’ is also hyponymous to ‘plant’ and ‘living thing’ as these are the most general categories. The combination of words to produce a single unit of meaning is also a part of sense-relations in a language. Compounds are made, which often do not mean the same as the separate words which they consist of. Thus, while ‘black bird’ can be understood to mean ‘a bird which is black’, ‘strawberry’ cannot be understood to mean ‘a berry made of straw’. Similarly, ‘fighter’ can be considered to be a noun made up of the morphemes ‘fight’ + ‘er’, but ‘hammer’ cannot be considered as made up of ‘ham’ + ‘er’. Phrasal verbs and idioms are also a case of such sense relations. The verbs ‘face up to’, ‘see through’, ‘look upon’, etc. have a composite meaning. Collocations such as ‘heavy smoker’ and ‘good singer’ are not mere combinations of heavy + smoker meaning ‘the smoker is heavy’ or ‘good + singer’. They mean ‘one who smokes heavily’ or ‘one who sings well’. The collocated unit has a meaning which is a composite of both that is why we cannot say ‘good smoker’ and ‘heavy singer’. All these sense-relations are peculiar to a language and every language develops its own system of sense-relations. (c) Sentence-meaning and Utterance-meaning A distinction may be drawn between, sentence-meaning and utterance-meaning. This is because a speaker may use a sentence to mean something other than what is normally stated in the sentence itself. As discussed earlier, sentence meaning is a combination of lexical and grammatical meaning. In addition to this, intonation may also affect sentence meaning. For example, ‘I don’t like COFFEE’ means that the speaker does not like coffee, but may like some other drink; ‘I don’t like coffee’ means that the speaker doesn’t like coffee but someone else does. Speakers can use intonation to change the emphasis and thus the meaning of the sentence. Further, a sentence may be used by a speaker to perform some act, such as the act of questioning, warning, promising, threatening, etc. Thus, a sentence such as ‘Its cold in here’ could be used as an order or request to someone to shut the window, even though it is a declarative sentence. Similarly, an interrogative sentence such as ‘Could you shut the door? ’ can be used to perform the act of requesting or commanding rather than that of questioning (The speaker is not asking whether the hearer is able to shut the door, but is requesting the hearer to actually do the action). Usually such use of sentences is so conventional that we do not stop to think of the literal sentence meaning, we respond to the speaker’s act of requesting, etc., which is the utterance meaning. This is the meaning that a sentence has when a speaker utters it to perform some act, in particular appropriate circumstances. (d) Entailment and Presupposition One sentence may entail other sentence—that is, include the meaning of other sentence in its meaning, just as hyponymy includes the meaning of other word. For example, the sentence ‘The earth goes round the sun’ entails (includes) the meaning ‘The earth moves’. A sentence may presuppose other sentences, e. g. the sentence ‘Shamim’s son is named Rahat’ presupposes the sentence ‘Shamim has a son’. Presupposition is the previously known meaning which is implied in the sentence. While entailment is a logical meaning inherent in the sentence, presupposition may depend on the knowledge of the facts, shared by the speaker and the hearer. Theories of Semantics a) Traditional Approach: We have noted earlier that meaning was always a central concern with thinkers. This has been the root of much divergent opinions and definitions of meaning. However, there was little doubt that there are two sides of the issue : symbolic realization, whether in utterance or in writing, and the thing symbolised. Plato’s Cratylus clearly lays down that word is the signifier (in the language) and the signified is the object (in the world). Words are, therefore, names, labels that denote or stand for. Initially, a child learns to know his world, and his language in this manner. He is pointed out the objects and people; names are given to them, and in his mind link or association between the names and the external world is established. Children have always been taught their language in this manner. This is also perhaps the way the earliest thinkers tried to understand the world through linguistic medium. That could be the reason why William Labov was prompted to say, ‘In many ways, the child is a perfect historian of the language’. This simple view of the relationship between name and things is diagrammatically shown below. However, this is an extremely simplistic theory and it would be wrong to say the child simply learns the names of things. Gradually, and simultaneously, he learns to ‘handle the complexities of experience along with the complexities of language’. b) Analytical/Referential Approach: Between the symbol and the object/thing there is an intervening phenomenon which is recognized as ‘the mediation of concepts of the mind’. De Saussure and I. A. Richards and C. K. Ogden are the best-known scholars to hold this view. The Swiss linguist de Saussure postulated the link, a psychological associative bond, between the sound image and the concept. Ogden and Richards viewed this in the shape of a triangle. The linguistic symbol or image, realized as a word or sentence and the referent, the external entities are mediated by thought or reference. There is no direct relation between the sign and the object but ‘our interpretation of any sign is our psychological reaction to it’ (Ogden). The meaning of a word in the most important sense of the word is that part of a total reaction to the word which constitutes the thought about what the word is intended for and what it symbolizes. Thus thought (the reference) constitutes the symbolic or referential meaning of a word (YevgenyBasin : 32-33). Linguistics, in the opinion of de Saussure, operates on the borderland where the elements of sound and thought combine : their combination produces a form, not a substance. When we see an object, a bird, for example, we call it referent; its recollection is its image. It is through this image that the sign is linked to the referent. The symbol is manifested in the phonetic form and the reference is the information the hearer is conveyed. This process thus established, makes meaning a ‘reciprocal’ and reversible relation between name and sense. One can start with the name and arrive at the meaning or one can start with the meaning and arrive at the name/s. The referential or ‘analytical’ approach, as it is also known, tries to avoid the functional domain of language, and seeks rather to understand meaning by identifying its primary components. This approach is the descendant of the ancient philosophical world-view, and carries its limitations. It ignores the relatively different positions at which the speaker and the hearer are situated. Their positions make a reciprocal and reversible relationship between name and sense (Ullmann). This approach also overlooks other psychological, non-physical processes which donot depend upon the linguistic symbol, the reception of the sound waves for recognising the meaning of the object/thing. A word usually has multiple meaning and is also associated with other words. Which of the meanings will be received depends upon the situations. (c) Functional Approach In the year 1953 L. Wittgenstein’s work Philosophical Investigation was published. Around this time Malinowski and J. R. Firth were working to formulate the ‘operational character of scientific concepts like ‘length’, ‘time’ or ‘energy’; they tried to grasp the meaning of a word by observing the uses to which it is put instead of what is said about it. They approached the problem by including all that is relevant in establishing the meaning – the hearers, their commonly shared knowledge and information, external objecs, and events, the contexts of earlier exchange and so on, and not by excluding them. This approach can directly be linked to the concept of the Context of situation being developed by the London group which viewed social processes as significant factor in explaining a speech event. While the referential approach took an idealist position, dealing, as someone said, with ‘meaning in language’, the functional theory or the operational theory took a realistic stand, taking ‘speech’ as it actually occurred. Words are considered tools and whole utterances are considered. Meaning is thus seen to involve a ‘set of multiple and various relations between the utterances’ and its segments and the relevant components of environment’ (Robins). In placing special emphasis on language as a form of behaviour – as something that we perform, the functional approach shares a lot with systemic linguistics. Language is a form a behaviour which is functional, ‘something that we do with a purpose, or more often, in fact, with more than one purpose. It is viewed as a form of functional behaviour which is related to the social situation in which it occurs as something that we do purposefully in a particular social setting’ (Margaret Berry). The systemic organization of a language is sought to be understood through its relations with the social situations of language. According to this theory, meaning is classified into two broad categories, Contextual Meaning and Formal Meaning. Contextual meaning relates a formal item or pattern to an element of situation.